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Most estimates suggest that afforestation is the “cheapest” means of offsetting carbon emissions — the international Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development estimates it will cost more than $14 per ton of carbon offset.

The idea is that each ton of carbon emitted by a particular plane flight, for instance, can be counterbalanced by a ton of carbon saved by a particular forest, and carbon offset groups have sought to be the intermediaries arranging that balance.

But carbon offset projects have a poor record, and examples of their failures abound.

Advocates like Graphyte’s Rogers want to ensure the market for carbon removal credits avoids the problems and scandals that have plagued the carbon offset market.

Their findings, published in the journal, Cleaner Environmental Systems, provide important insights for policymakers to improve the effectiveness and credibility of the carbon offset market.