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Damien Dumestier, Ascend project architect at Thales Alenia Space, says that for space-based data centres to be more environmentally friendly than existing ground-based ones it will be necessary to make the rocket launchers 10 times less emissive over their lifecycles.

"There's lots of evidence that playa is particularly emissive in terms of dust," Edwards said.

"The alphabet movie serves as a compelling example that illustrates the application of emissive thin films like supramolecular ink in the creation of fast-switching displays," said Zhu.

Schade, in written and oral testimony, offered a conservative scenario: If the Salton Sea playa proved just one-tenth as emissive as Owens Lake, it could produce air quality events 27 times over the federal safety standard for PM10.

The 2022 tournament will be "the most emissive ever", he says, adding: "It's a fantasy to consider that this World Cup is carbon-neutral."